Theoretical foundations

The article reviewed by Cowen and Keltner (2017) introduces a conceptual conceptual approach to analysing the reported emotional states evoked by 2185 short videos, examining the richest range of reported emotional experiences to date. to date. The authors identified 27 distinct varieties of reported emotional experiences, a finding that calls into question existing emotional theories that suggest a suggest a greater more basic emotions.

The article analyzed by Cowen and Keltner (2017) introduces a conceptual approach to the analysis of self-reported emotional states evoked by 2,185 short videos, examining the richest range of emotional experiences reported to date. The authors identified 27 distinct varieties of emotional experiences, a finding that challenges existing emotional theories suggesting a more limited range of basic emotions.

By using statistical methods to analyse emotional emotional states researchers were able to identify a geometric structure of the emotional emotional experience reported. They provided an interactive map of the emotional states by the videos, which is available online, to advance the science of of emotion

The analysis also compared the emotional experience reported to of judgements on affective dimensions, finding that the emotional emotional categories explained significantly more of the variance in judgements on affective dimensions affective dimensions than the reverse. This suggests that emotional categories have more semantic semantic value in in explaining the emotional experiences reported.

The results of this study suggest that emotional reported are structured by both discrete and dimensional geometries, with dimensional geometries, with boundaries between categories of emotion, contradicting the theories that theories that suggest strictly discrete emotional distinctions. These findings provide a new understanding of the complexity and richness of emotional emotional experiences experiences.

Main Finding

• Discovery of 27 Varieties of Emotional Experiences: Identification of 27 distinct categories of reported emotional experiences, demonstrating a greater emotional diversity than traditionally recognized in the scientific literature.

Methodology

• Video Analysis: Using 2185 short videos to elicit emotional responses in participants.
• Multidimensional approach : Application of advanced statistical methods to explore the geometric structure of reported emotional experiences.

Key results

• Blurred boundaries between emotions : The boundaries between the categories of emotion are described as blurred rather than strictly discrete.
• Gradients of Emotion : Identification of emotion gradients that correspond to a smooth variation in affective dimensions such as valence and dominance.
• Superiority of Emotional Categories : Emotional categories captured reported experiences more accurately than affective dimensions such as valence and arousal.

Theoretical implications

• Challenging Emotional Theories : The findings challenge existing emotional models, in particular the notion of limited basic emotions.
• Complex Structure of Emotional Experience : The results suggest that human emotional experience occupies a complex and multidimensional space, bounded by continuous gradients rather than discrete discrete categories.

Contributions and Resources

• Interactive map of emotional states : An interactive online map of the emotional states evoked by the videos, designed to enrich future research on emotion.
  🔗 Access the Interactive Map

The article reviewed by Cowen and Keltner (2017) introduces a conceptual conceptual approach to analysing the reported emotional states evoked by 2185 short videos, examining the richest range of reported emotional experiences to date. to date. The authors identified 27 distinct varieties of reported emotional experiences, a finding that calls into question existing emotional theories that suggest a suggest a greater more basic emotions.

The study by Cowen et al (2020) explores the nature of the subjective experiences evoked by music and how these experiences are experiences are structured across different cultures. In examining the reactions of American and Chinese participants to a range of musical excerpts, the research team identified thirteen identified thirteen distinct dimensions of subjective experience associated associated with music that are preserved across these different cultures.

Participants listened to samples of Western and Chinese music specific feelings (such as ‘angry’, ‘dreamy’) or broader affective dreamy') or broader affective characteristics (such as valence, arousal) that they felt. (such as valence, arousal) they were feeling. Using large-scale large-scale statistical tools, the study discovered that certain subjective experiences, such as ‘triumphant’, were better preserved between the two cultures than levels of valence and arousal arousal, contradicting theoretical claims that valence and arousal that valence and arousal are the foundations of subjective experience. subjective experience.

Contrary to theories of discrete emotions, feelings associated associated with music occupy continuous gradients, suggesting a complex and multidimensional space of subjective experience associated associated with music in different cultures. This discovery offers new perspectives on the study of the origin of affective affective disorders, the neurological basis of emotion, and broadens our our understanding of music as a universal phenomenon capable of a rich and complex range of emotional experiences.

The analysis also demonstrated that the specific experiences evoked by music were more consistent across cultures than general than general affective characteristics, suggesting that music first music first evokes specific feelings that are then used to construct used to construct valence and arousal judgements. These results challenge existing models of emotional experience emotional experience and suggest that our response to music is structured around is structured around complex and nuanced emotional dimensions that that transcend cultural boundaries.

In summary, this research highlights the complexity and universality of complexity and universality of the emotional experiences evoked by underlining the existence of a rich, multidimensional semantic space of subjective multidimensional space of subjective experience shared across different cultures.

Aim of the study

• Investigate how people represent the subjective experiences associated with Western and Chinese music.
• To study the preservation of these representational processes different cultural groups.

Methodology

• Participants: Individuals from the United States and China.
• Procedure: Listening to 2168 musical extracts and reporting specific feelings or broad affective characteristics felt.

Main discoveries

• Identification of 13 distinct dimensions of subjective experience associated with music, preserved across cultures. cultures.
• Specific feelings such as ‘triumphant’ are better preserved between cultures than levels of valence and arousal. arousal.
• The feelings associated with music are situated on continuous gradients, contrary to theories of discrete emotions. discrete emotions.

Theoretical implications

• Questioning the assertions that valence and arousal are the foundations and arousal are the foundations of subjective experience.
• Suggesting that music first evokes specific feelings which are then used to construct valence and arousal valence and arousal judgements.

Practical consequences

• Offers new insights into the origins of affective disorders and the neurological basis of emotion.
• Broadening our understanding of music as a universal phenomenon universal phenomenon capable of evoking a complex range of emotional experiences.

Conclusion

• Music creates a rich, multi-dimensional semantic space subjective experience that transcends cultural cultural boundaries.
• This research sheds light on the complexity and universality of the emotional experiences evoked by music.
• These categories summarise the crucial aspects of the study, underlining its importance in understanding emotional responses to music across different cultures.
• 🔗 Access the Interactive Map

The study by Thornton and Tamir (2017) explores how people use their understanding of current emotions to predict future emotional future emotional transitions in others. The authors suggest that individuals develop accurate mental models of emotional dynamics by observing regularities in emotion transitions emotion transitions, thus making it possible to predict future emotions from currently observable emotions.

The results of the studies show that the participants were were able to accurately predict future emotional transitions transitions based on mental models that incorporate four conceptual conceptual dimensions of mental states: valence (positive or negative) impact (high or low social arousal), rationality (cognitive or affective) rationality (cognitive or affective) and the human aspect of the mind (specifically human or shared with animals). This ability to predict emotional transitions could offer a strategic advantage in social advantage in social interactions, as in the game of chess, where success chess, where success depends on the ability to anticipate the future movements of the other players.

Data and analysis show that people have a rich and multi-dimensional multi-dimensional understanding of emotional transitions transitions, which goes beyond a simple static knowledge of emotions. emotions. This suggests that mental models of emotional transitions are not transitions are not limited to static emotional concepts or global or to the overall similarity between emotions, but contain specific specific information about emotional dynamics. dynamics.

In short, this research highlights the complexity and precision with which complexity and accuracy with which human beings can understand predict the emotions of others, using mental models that incorporate that incorporate various aspects of emotional experience. These discoveries could have important implications for understanding human social skills and developing strategies to strategies to improve the prediction and management of emotions in social interactions.

Main assumption

• Individuals can predict the future emotions of others by developing mental models of emotional transitions based on the observation of regularities in these transitions.

Methodology

• Three studies using sample data experiments to establish the actual rates of emotional transitions.
• Participants assessed the probability of transition between emotional states.
• Use of Markov chain models to analyse the accuracy of emotional accuracy of emotional predictions.

Main results

• Participants' assessments of emotional transitions transitions corresponded precisely to the emotional transitions transitions, demonstrating the existence of precise mental models. mental models.
• Four conceptual dimensions (valence, social impact rationality, and the human aspect of the mind) play a key role in the in the formation of these mental models.

Implications

• These mental models potentially allow individuals to predict the future emotions of others up to two transitions in the future, with better than chance accuracy.
• The conceptual dimensions that inform these models reflect both the emotions actually transitioned and the way in which people people think about other people's emotions, suggesting an observational observational basis for these models.

Meaning

• The ability to accurately predict emotional transitions transitions can offer strategic advantages in social interactions social interactions, similar to the advantages in games of such as chess.
• The results highlight the sophistication of human social social cognition and suggest that human beings have a deep and nuanced have a deep and nuanced understanding of emotional dynamics. emotional dynamics.

Conclusion

• The study makes a significant contribution to our understanding of social cognition, by showing how individuals use current use current emotional information to predict the future emotions future emotions of others, enriching our understanding of social understanding of social and emotional prediction emotional dynamics.

The study by Brady et al (2017) explores how moral emotions influence the distribution of moralised content on social networks. social networks. Their research shows that the expression of moral emotions is crucial for the spread of moral and political ideas and political ideas in online social networks, a phenomenon they call ‘moral contagion’. they call ‘moral contagion’. By analysing a large sample of social media communications on three polarising political polarising political issues (gun control, gay marriage and climate and climate change), they found that the presence of and moral connotations increased the spread of these messages by messages by 20% for each additional word.

The study also revealed that moral contagion is limited by group membership; emotional-moral language increased more within liberal and conservative networks and less between them. conservative networks and less between them. This highlights the importance of of emotion in the social transmission of moral ideas and also also demonstrates the usefulness of social network methods for studying morality. study morality. These findings offer insights into how people are exposed to moral and political ideas through social social networks, extending models of social influence and group and group polarisation as people become more immersed in social networks. immersed in social media networks.

The study's approach also highlights the usefulness of integrating a social network social network perspective to moral psychology, offering high ecological ecological validity compared to laboratory studies by allowing exploration of moral discourse on contentious political with significant political ramifications in naturally formed social naturally formed social environments.

Background and objective

• Context: The increase in political debates on moralized moralised issues in online social networks.
• Objective: To explore how certain moral ideas spread spread more quickly or widely than others in online social online social networks, focusing on the role of moral moral emotion in this process.

Methodology

• Sample: Analysis of 563,312 communications on social media on three controversial subjects (arms control, gay marriage same-sex marriage, climate change).
• Approach: Counting words with emotional and moral connotations and moral connotations in tweets and analysing their effect on dissemination (retweets).

Main results

• Moral contagion: Presence of emotional-moral words increasing the spread of messages by 20% for each additional additional word.
• Limitation by group: Emotional-moral language increases distribution more strongly within ideologically ideologically homogeneous networks (liberals and conservatives) and less between them.

Theoretical implications

• Importance of emotion: Emphasises the importance of in the social transmission of moral ideas.
• Social network methods: Demonstrates the usefulness of these methods to study morality and social influence in social networks. social networks.
• Polarisation and echo-chambers: Helps explain why online moral and political discussions often occur in ideologically often take place in ideologically polarised echo chambers. polarised echo chambers.

Conclusions and future directions

• Conclusions: The expression of moral emotions plays a crucial role in the dissemination of moral and political ideas in online social networks.
• Future directions: Suggests further research to clarify the specific role of different moral emotions and their functional link to moral outcomes, as well as the impact of the impact of social network structure and source effects on the effects on the diffusion of moral ideas.

The article ‘The neural representation of facial-emotion categories reflects conceptual structure’ by Jeffrey A. Brooks et al. explores how the conceptual structure of emotions influences the perception and neural representation of emotional facial expressions. emotional facial expressions. The researchers suggest that, contrary to the conventional that the perception of facial emotions is universal and invariant universal and invariant, knowledge of emotional concepts (such as sadness (such as sadness, joy, fear, etc.) could in fact shape the way emotions are perceived visually. This perspective highlights that the perception of facial emotions could vary from one individual to another, reflecting differences in the in the conceptual structure of emotions in each individual.

Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and similarity analysis (fMRI) study and a representational similarity analysis similarity analysis (RSA), the study examined the correspondence between conceptual, perceptual and neural structure of the six facial categories of facial emotion (anger, disgust, fear, happiness sadness and surprise) in the participants. The results showed that showed that individual differences in the conceptual structure predicted each participant's unique perceptual structure. structure of each participant. More specifically, when the representational structure of multivoxel patterns in the right patterns in the right fusiform gyrus was significantly predicted by the significantly predicted by the subject's unique conceptual structure, even subject, even controlling for the potential physical similarity of the faces themselves. In addition, cultural differences in emotion emotion perception were also observed, which could be explained by individual be explained by individual differences in conceptual structure. conceptual structure.

These results suggest that the representational structure of emotional emotional expressions in the brain regions responsible for face may be shaped by an idiosyncratic conceptual understanding of emotion categories. idiosyncratic conceptual understanding of emotion categories. In other words how we conceptually understand and categorise emotions may influence how we categorise emotions can influence how we perceive the emotions other people's faces, as well as how these emotions are represented in our brains. represented in our brains. This discovery calls into question the idea of a universal and invariant perception of facial emotions and highlights the role of top-down factors top-down factors, such as knowledge of emotional concepts, in the perception of emotions.

Background and Aim of the Study

• Main objective: To examine how the conceptual structure influences the visual perception and neural representation of emotional neural representation of emotional facial expressions.
• Hypothesis: The perception of facial emotions varies between individuals, reflecting differences in their emotional conceptual structure.

Methodology

• Participants : Individuals from different cultures participated in the study.
• Tools used : Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and representational similarity analysis (RSA). analysis (RSA).
• Emotions studied : Anger, disgust, fear, happiness,

Key results

• Influence of Conceptual Structure: Individual differences in the in the conceptual structure of emotions predict the unique perceptual structure of each perceptual structure.
• Role of the Right Fusiform Gyrus: The representational structure representational structure of multivoxel patterns in the right gyrus is significantly influenced by the subject's emotional emotional conceptual structure of the subject.
• Cultural differences: Variations in the perception of emotions emotions can be explained by individual differences in individual differences in conceptual structure, suggesting cultural influences on emotional emotional perception.

Theoretical implications

• Challenging Classical Views: The discovery challenges the idea of a universal and invariant perception invariant perception of facial emotions, underlining the importance of top-down factors.
• Conceptual Influence on Perception: How emotions are conceptually understood and categorized how emotions are conceptually understood and categorised can faces and their neural representation.

Conclusion

• Personalized Emotional Perception: This study highlights. that the perception and neural representation of emotional facial expressions emotional facial expressions can be personalised, shaped by each individual's idiosyncratic conceptual understanding of emotional categories of each individual.

The study by Lynda C. Lin, Yang Qu and Eva H. Telzer and published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) in 2018 explores how members of our own group (ingroup) (ingroup) and those of other groups (outgroup) influence our emotional emotional processing at the behavioural and neural levels. This study focused on 45 participants who first evaluated a series of images showing people in different emotional contexts. emotional contexts. Later, during an fMRI session, the participants reviewed these images, this time accompanied by ratings allegedly ratings purportedly given by members of their own group or an external group, before evaluating them again.

The results showed that participants tended to align their emotional evaluations more closely with those of their own than those of the outside group. At the neural neuronal level, areas involved in positive evaluation, mentalization mentalisation and the processing of emotion and salience (such as the ventral striatum, ventromedial prefrontal cortex amygdala and insula) were activated in a linear fashion, reflecting this behaviour. This indicates a significant impact of members of our own group on our emotions.

The study also explored whether culture modulated compliance with the but found no significant difference between American and Chinese participants, suggesting that these behavioural and neural neural processes of intergroup influence on emotional processing emotional processing could be universal..

This research sheds light on the power of social and intergroup influence on our emotional reactions, and highlights the importance of understanding of understanding these mechanisms to improve emotional between groups in an increasingly globalised world. globalised world.

Aim of the study

• Examine the influence of members of our group (ingroup) and of other groups other groups (outgroup) on our emotional processing, at both behavioural and neural levels.

Methodology

• Participants: 45 individuals, divided between Americans and Chinese.
• Procedure: Participants first evaluate emotional images then, during an fMRI session, review these images with the assessments with ratings provided by members of their group or an external group or an external group before re-evaluating them.
• Measurements: Emotional ratings of images and neural activity measured by fMRI.

Main results

• Behavioural Compliance: Participants tend to tend to align their emotional evaluations with those of their members of their own group more than those of members of an members of an external group.
• Neuronal activation : Brain regions associated with positive evaluation (ventral striatum, ventromedial prefrontal cortex), mentalization (dorsomedial prefrontal cortex, medial prefrontal cortex, posterior superior temporal sulcus, temporal pole) and the processing of emotion and salience (amygdala, insula) show activity that is linearly linked to conformity with conformity towards members of one's own group.

Cultural implications

• Effect of Culture: No significant difference found between American and Chinese participants, suggesting that these processes may be universal.

Meaning

• This study highlights the significant impact of members of our own on our emotional processing and highlights the importance of underlines the importance of intergroup dynamics in emotional emotional understanding.

Conclusion

• Emotions are profoundly influenced by social and intergroup and intergroup context, with underlying behavioural and neural mechanisms that reflect the importance of group membership importance of group membership in our emotional experience.

This study, carried out by Weiyi Ma and William Forde Thompson, explores how human emotions follow changes in the acoustic environment. The researchers investigated whether the acoustic attributes that influence emotions in speech and music also elicit music also elicit emotional responses when they occur when they occur in environmental sounds, such as the sounds of human the sounds of human actions, animal cries, machine sounds, or natural natural phenomena such as wind and rain.

They manipulated three acoustic attributes (frequency spectrum, intensity, and rate) of 24 environmental sounds and assessed how these changes affected the emotional perception of sounds, as well as the as well as the emotional interpretation of accompanying facial expressions. expressions. The results showed that human emotions indeed follow these changes in environmental sounds, in the same way as they do in the same way as they do for speech and music. These acoustic attributes can convey biologically significant about the size, proximity and energy of the sound source energy of the sound source, which may explain their influence on our emotional responses.

This discovery reaffirms Charles Darwin's hypothesis that speech and music that speech and music have a common origin in an emotional emotional signal system based on the imitation and modification of environmental sounds. It also suggests that our perception of environmental sounds can affect our interpretation of interpretation of visual stimuli, underlining the deep interconnection between our auditory experience and our overall emotional emotional perception.

In short, the study sheds light on the human capacity to detect and respond emotionally to changes in the acoustic environment environment, offering valuable insight into the evolutionary origins of musical and communication and how we interpret our world of sound. interpret our world of sound.

Aim of the study

• Examine how human emotions respond to changes in the acoustic environment.

Main assumption

• The acoustic attributes that influence emotions in speech and music speech and music trigger similar emotional responses in environmental in environmental sounds.

Methodology

• Manipulation of three acoustic attributes (frequency spectrum intensity and rate) of 24 environmental sounds.
• Evaluation of the impact of these changes on the emotional perception emotional perception of sounds and on the interpretation of accompanying facial expressions.

Key results

• Changes in the acoustic attributes of environmental sounds systematically affect human emotional responses, similar responses, similar to those observed for speech and music. speech and music.
• These acoustic attributes convey significant information about the size, proximity and energy of sound sources, influencing our influencing our emotional responses.

Implications

• Support for Darwin's hypothesis that speech and music originate speech and music in an emotional signalling system based on the based on the imitation of environmental sounds.
• The perception of environmental sounds can influence the interpretation the interpretation of visual stimuli, indicating an between auditory experience and emotional emotional perception.

Meaning

• The study provides insights into the human ability to perceive and react and react to changes in the acoustic environment, environment, offering insights into the evolutionary origins of our communication and on how we interpret the sounds that surrounds us

This article explores consciousness from the point of view of theoretical theoretical computer science (TCS), a branch of mathematics focused on understanding the understanding the fundamentals of computation and complexity. complexity. The authors propose a formal TCS model, the Conscious Turing Machine (CTM), inspired by Alan Turing's Turing machine and the Global Workspace Theory (GWT) of consciousness. (GWT) theory of consciousness, proposed by cognitive neuroscientist Bernard Baars and subsequently developed by him and others. The article discusses phenomena generally associated with associated with consciousness, such as change blindness, dream creation and free free will, and proposes explanations based on the model explanations that are supported by the cognitive neuroscience neuroscience literature.

The CTM is conceived as a simple, substrate-independent model of consciousness. consciousness, and is not intended to model the brain or suggest neural neural correlates of consciousness. Rather, the aim is to to understand consciousness and its associated phenomena through a computational prism. The authors argue that the perspective enriches the understanding of consciousness and related related concepts such as free will.

The article details the structure and operation of the CTM, including its architecture including its architecture, its internal language called ‘Brainish’, and predictive dynamics involving prediction, feedback and and learning. It also discusses how the CTM model could experience various phenomena related to consciousness, providing consciousness, providing high-level explanations that are that are consistent with current knowledge in psychology and neuroscience. neuroscience.

The authors conclude that the CTM, although a simplified model, contributes significantly to the discussion and understanding of consciousness and the difficult problems associated with it. They hope that their approach will stimulate further research into consciousness from a consciousness from a theoretical computer science perspective. theoretical perspective.

This article offers an innovative perspective on the study of consciousness by consciousness, applying the principles of theoretical computational science theoretical computational science to propose a new and stimulating framework for exploration of this complex field.

Introduction and background

• Theoretical Computer Science (TCS) perspective: The article explores consciousness through the prism of TCS, a mathematical discipline focused on the principles of computation and complexity.
• Conscious Turing Machine (CTM) model: Inspired by the Turing machine and Bernard Baars' theory of the global workspace (GWT), the CTM is proposed as a formal model for understanding consciousness. model for understanding consciousness.

Theoretical foundations

• Theoretical Computer Science (TCS): Discussion of the role of role of TCS in understanding computation, complexity, and complexity, and resource limitations.
• Turing machine : Presentation of the Turing machine as the fundamental model of computation on which the CTM is is based.

The CTM Model

• Structure and Operation: Detailed description of the including short-term memory (STM), long-term memory (LTM) and information long-term memory (LTM), and information processing.
• Internal Language (Brainish): Introduction of ‘Brainish’, the MTA's internal language used for communicating and representing sensory and conceptual information.
• Predictive dynamics: Explanation of how uses prediction, feedback and learning to interact with its environment. learning to interact with its environment.

Phenomena of Consciousnes

• Consciousness-Associated Phenomena: Discussion of how the CTM model could experience consciousness-related phenomena such as change blindness, dream creation, and free will. and free will.
• Model-based explanations: Proposed explanations for these phenomena derived from the CTM model, with confirmations in the cognitive neuroscience literature. neuroscience literature.

Implications and Contributions

• Contribution to the Understanding of Consciousness: Argumentation that the TCS perspective provides a unique understanding of consciousness and free will.
• Stimulating Future Research: The hope that TCS-based approach will stimulate further research into consciousness.

Conclusion

• Importance of the CTM Model: Although simplified, the CTM is presented as a significant contribution to the dialogue on consciousness consciousness, offering a new framework for its study.